The effects of human cloning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The effects of human cloning - Essay Example Human cloning is also faces the risk of being misused, and is shows a lack of respect for the individuals involved as well as respect for the mystery of procreation of human beings. Moreover, it lead to serious psychological problems for both the parent and the child. Other problems have to do with that its long-term effects are unidentified, it poses concerns regarding lack of originality, individuality, identity formation, gender identity, identification, as well as problems to do with cognitive development and social emotional development. Introduction Cloning is a reproduction method that refers to the asexual production of genetically identical organisms either through nuclear transfer, which has to do with the substitution of a nucleus in the egg by another nucleus, or through the division of an embryo. Cloning involves copying or duplicating an individual or a cell from its DNA, and the result is a clone. Cloning in animals is attained through embryonic cloning where a fertili zed egg is split into two or more parts at a very early embryonic stage, yielding two or more identical beings. It is also attained through somatic cloning where identical beings are produced from adult animals’ cells – under specified conditions, an anucleated ovum fertilizes a somatic cell’s nucleus leading to cell division, and it becomes a fetus. For decades, people have done cloning in dozens plants (vegetables and fruits) by deliberately reproducing genetic replicas of parents with desirable qualities as well as quantities. However, the first successful attempt of cloning in mammals is exemplified by formation of a Scottish sheep called Dolly through a process known as somatic cell nuclear transfer. This grabs the attention of scientists – they thought that if plants and animals could be cloned, there was a possibility that humans too could be cloned (Yadav & Sharma, 2011 and Islam, et al. 2012). Yadav and Sharma (2011) explain that a geneticist kno wn as Joshua Lederberg, is credited coming up with the prospects and promise of human cloning. Today, â€Å"human cloning has become a real possibility† with the rise of reproductive cloning technology – through it, parents are given the ability â€Å"to choose a desirable genotype for one’s offspring† (Shapshay, 2012) or the ability to exercise their control/desires on the identity of the children they want to have. Yadav and Sharma (2011) identify three types of cloning. The first one is reproductive cloning, which produces an individual that has identical nuclear DNA as the parent. Reproductive cloning uses somatic cell transfer process as discussed in previously. The second type of cloning is DNA Cloning or Recombinant DNA Technology, which is done by cell- based technique, a process that involves cutting off DNA fragment from the chromosomal DNA and attaching it to a plasmid. The gene of interests is attached to its vector forming a recombination DNA molecule. DNA Cloning or Recombinant DNA Technology, is also done using polymerase chain reaction technique whereby when all cells divide, enzymes known as polymerases create a copy of the whole DNA in every chromosome. The two DNA chains of the double helix are separated making a copy, each strand acting as a template. This technique is faster and uses a very small portion of target DNA. The third type of cloning is therapeutic cloning, referred also to as embryo cloning, somatic cell nuclear transfer, research cloning, cloning for biomedical research or cell

What are the special challenges and opportunities presented by working Essay

What are the special challenges and opportunities presented by working in the Third Sector - Essay Example The term third sector has currently been substituted in Government practice by the name ‘Civil Society’ or more frequently the phrase ‘Big Society’, which was invented by political consultants and which featured significantly during the traditionalist party's election campaign of year 2010. The existence of a large non-profit division is at times observed as a sign of a strong financial system within local as well as nationalized economic capacity. With an increasing amount of non-profit associations persistent on social services, the surroundings, teaching and other unmet requirements all over the society, the non-profit division is more and more essential to the wellbeing and security of society. The non-profit sector offers an outstanding channel for a range of society's labour and abilities (Peltenburg, p. 78, 2007). The third sector became the leading sector in society, as the well-informed class prevail over the effects of the private sector. This is true in a number of European nations. In accordance with a latest study, Netherlands has the biggest third sector of 20 nations across Europe. Social benefit structures are usually diverse in different nations. These systems take care of components of social defence, family unit strategy and individual dependability in a different way, and all over the Europe, a combination of these components can be found. Their individual characteristics still control nationalized social exchange of ideas, even though globalisation, altering financial conditions, progressive EU legislative and increased stress on resources appears to direct towards ‘convergence’ (Berridge, p. 62, 2010). Although in some European nations, civil society - even if the phrase itself is of current derivation - has been a venerable happening, other nations’ experien ce with them is fresh. Global commonality either has brought active establishments in Europe to start non-governmental organizations or help their counterparts in rising parliamentary governments do this, and their support is usually ongoing. There is no established description of the expression 'civil society establishment'; however, it is normally implicit to take account of the social associates, NGOs, mutual interest organizations and local establishments (Comaroff, p. 99, 2009). What all establishments have in common is their ‘not for profit’ nature, which does not indicate they cannot produce in excess, but does indicate they have to be reinvested in and utilized for the common use of the establishment. Many of them take advantage of unpaid assistants and definitely, volunteering could be their second most essential trait. In various nations, the global year of volunteers 2001 has evidently been an incentive to reorganize as well as develop volunteering directive. In all European nations, third sector organisations are present, although they vary in a substantial number of characteristics. In the United Kingdom only, they can be ‘shared interest’ establishments or philanthropic, from the subdivision or horizontal, intending at limited or broader target groups, nationalized or global, working entirely at local, provincial or nationalized level or all over them, distinct at regional level or linked, racially, conscientiously, ideologically, linguistically separated (Francois, p. 193, 2008). They can be ‘members’ umbrella establishments, associates of EU and worldwide bodies, working together with the commercial sector, providing services, moderately or completely subsidized by legislative authorities, have infrastructural sustenance establishments, be with or without

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Report - Essay Example Customer service is a process used by the organisations to provide customers with the needs and wants. The travel and tourism industry is one which is very large and there is a high level of direct customer interaction in this industry. Over the years, with the level of disposable income rising in the country, the customers are able and willing to spend more on various services related to travel and tourism and various researches have highlighted that customers are able to spend heavily on their travel and tourism needs. Saying this is also important to understand, that with an increase of the number of people indulging in the travel and tourism, the need for customer service has also grown to a higher extent. The travel industry requires to follow the ABTA rules. The main aim of the ABTA policies is to ensure that all the members of the travel industry and that all the customers and the members of the travel industry are provided with high levels of quality and customer service. All the travel related companies need to follow the rules set down by the ABTA and are obliged to follow the rules and regulations and policies set down by the ABTA. Customer Service is an essential part of Customer relationship management. Customer relationship management, which is widely known as CRM holds an enormous importance in today’s competitive world. This is clear from the several different mission statements and the vision statements that are presented by the companies across the world. An excellent example for the mission statements is, ‘It is the policy of McDonnell & Miller to provide products and services to the market which meet or exceed the reasonable expectations of our customers. Satisfying our customers with the appropriate level of quality is a primary goal and a fundamental element of our business mission’ (Mission Statements, 2010). Various changes have

The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara - Essay Example It resulted in loss and injury of 51,000 men. The characters of the book include General Robert E. Lee (commander of the Confederate army), General James Longstreet (General Lee’s second in command); and Union Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain (the participant of the fighting on Little Round Top, one of the most popular divisions of the Battle of Gettysburg). On June 29, 1863, Longstreet meets a spy, who tells him that the Union army is moving, which surprises him because he thinks that General Stuart is supposed to follow the Union army. He thinks it appropriate to catch the Union army from north. The Confederates move south-east in Gettysburg. Colonel Chamberlain finds out that there are a hundred new mutineers from the Second Maine, out of whom six join his Twentieth Maine after his speech. The Union army, under supervision of General Buford, arrives in Gettysburg to find out the Confederates already present there. Buford positions nearly 200 soldiers along the hills to confron t the Confederates, because he thinks it easier to fight from the top. George Pickett and many other Generals meet Longstreet in the Confederate camp. General Lee is irritated at the absence of General Stuart. On July 1, he meets Longstreet who tells that he wants to confront the Union army from south-east, to come between them and Washington D.C. Lee refuses. The Confederates attack the Union army at Gettysburg. Buford keeps back the Confederates with the help of General Reynolds, who gets killed. Lee arrives and finds the battle going on, and orders his Generals to attack the Union army from south. Chamberlain’s troops also move in the north of Gettysburg. The union army retreats to the hills and sets up cannons. Longstreet is perplexed at Lee’s decision, and is angry at General Ewell’s move of making the Union forces retreat in hills. The Union army blames Buford for the retreat. Chamberlain is still moving in the north of Gettysburg on July 2, where he meets an escaped slave. Lee approves of Ewell and Early’s plan to attack two flanks of the Union. He moves his forces toward the hill, where the Unions had already come down. Lee attacks, and the result is a scene of carnage from both sides. Chamberlain reaches the little Round Top. His troops run short of bullets. They scream and frighten the Confederates away, making the Unions possess the Little Round Top. Lee gets angry at Stuart when he arrives. Lee sets a new plan of attacking the middle flank of the Unions. He orders Chamberlain’s troops to take position, on July 3. Longstreet tries to convince Lee to leave the plan, but all in vain. He gives Pickett the charge of attack. The Confederates attack the Unions. Chamberlain is safe, though his troops are in the center. The attack is of less harm to the Unions, who attack back with cannons, causing the Confederates much loss. Confederates retreat, and the gory battle ends (Bailey). Shaara’s attempt at describing eve nts made this book the top best-seller (Wilson and Fischer 492). I loved reading the book, and appreciated the way the writer has conveyed the correct sequence of events. The way of writing is subtle yet imaginary, and I can feel myself present at the place of war while reading. The tone is expressive, and the style of writing, with which the chronological order of events has been presented, is lucid. While synopsis, I

Market Equilibrium Process Essay Example for Free

Market Equilibrium Process Essay Relate the concepts of the market equilibrating process in the Weeks One and Two readings and learning activities to a prior real-world experience occurring in a free market. The experience does not necessarily have to be work related. Explain the market equilibrating process in relation to your experience. Include academic research to support your ideas. Consider the following components in your explanation: †¢ Law of demand and the determinants of demand †¢ Law of supply and the determinants of supply †¢ Efficient markets theory †¢ Surplus and shortage Use University of Phoenix Material: Appendix A to create graphs illustrating the equilibrating process in price relation to the shift in supply and demand. Deliver the content as a 350- to 500-word paper, 7- to 10-slide Microsoft ® PowerPoint ® presentation, 2- to 3-minute video, or 1-page comic strip illustration. http://academicwritingtips.org/component/k2/item/932-market-equilibrium-process.html Market equilibrium refers to the selling price â€Å"where the intentions of buyers and sellers match†. This means that the quantity sellers are willing to sell at a particular price matches the quantity buyers are willing to purchase at that same price, or, in other words, where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. A surplus results when the price is too high (quantity supplied is more than consumers are willing to buy) and a shortage occurs when the price is too low (quantity demanded is more than quantity supplied). The equilibrium price changes when there is a shift in either supply or demand. The market is made up of two basic groups, households and businesses. These two units buy and sell goods and services from and to each other. The market system uses competition among buyers and sellers to regulate the price of available goods and services. Theoretically, this insures that no one buyer or seller will be able to monopolize the market because others can c ome in and undercut the price. Supply and demand are affected by changes in consumer preferences, number of buyers in the market, consumers’ incomes, the prices of related goods, and consumer expectations. The economy is currently in a recession, or depression depending on whom you ask, that has greatly affected these determinants of demand. Many industries and individual consumers have seen a steep decline in income due to this market low period. The recession has had a significant affect on the construction industry in which this author currently works. There is currently a surplus of commercial and residential properties on the market. This surplus discourages businesses from starting new construction projects. This has led to businesses reducing their workforces which has in turn led to consumers reducing their spending and has become a circle of lower buying and selling. The construction industry was not the only one affected by this cycle. Nearly all industries that depend on consumers discretionary funds, those not spent on necessities, were affected. Large manufacturers that have been around forever went bankrupt and small companies everywhere  suffered the same fate. The United States economy is market based. Sellers and consumers are free to trade in any way that works for them with relatively little interference from government. This system allows the price of products and services to be set by supply and demand and determines the allocation of limited resources. Suppliers and consumers are connected in a circle of buying and selling, and when there is a major shift in the economy all can be affected. References This is a hanging indent. To keep the hanging indent format, simply delete this line of text using the backspace key, and replace the information with your reference entry. http://www.e-m-h.org/introduction.html http://www.healthmr.com/resources/newsletter-archive/1011-fa-3-ways-to-increase-revenues-in-home-health-and-hospice http://academicwritingtips.org/component/k2/item/932-market-equilibrium-process.html http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/165/6/750 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand

An Intercultural Comparison Between Chinese Essay Example for Free

An Intercultural Comparison Between Chinese Essay An intercultural comparison between Chinese and foreign humor Summary: Humor is  a wonderful work  of human civilization  and wisdom, she smiled as a bridge, bond people in different culture, and made people recognizing the power of the humor in their normal communication. This paper  will trace the  historical origins of  humor. From the humorous discourse features, themes, social functions, performance practices and seize of the  subtle to start  the  similarities and differences between Chinese and Western humor. Humor is  a wonderful work  of human civilization  and wisdom, she smiled as a bridge, bond people in different culture, and made people recognizing the power of the humor in their normal communication. 1. Origins and scopes of humor Humor  comes from the  Latin  word ‘humor’, it  is an  ancient Greek physiology term refers to the ‘fluid’. Greek physician Hippocrates believed that the human  health and  temperament  of different  types of  four kinds of  body  fluids  on  the mixing ratio. Temperament  theory  in ancient Greece, medieval and Renaissance  have a great impact. Thus, humor  is  the original meaning of four kinds of body fluids determined by  the proportion of the human mind, body, customary tendency, temperament, or  temporary  mental and emotions. The first of the humor into the field of aesthetics  is a famous British  dramatist, Ben Jones,  gradually  dilute the  meaning of humor physiology, aesthetics increasingly in-depth  the study  of  humor. Late in the 17th century, humor began to have the modern meaning; In the 18th century, humor  for the  aesthetic features  of  drama,  fiction, poetry,  prose and writing style with humor  for the  writers and artists  have been common. Such as in : Sunday school teacher: Hands up all those who want to go to heaven? Hands up †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ What about ou Terry? You haven’t got your hand up-don’t you want to go to heaven? Terry: Sorry, I can’t. Mum told me to go straight home. The  suspense  in  the beginning  of the first  discourse,  two,  third and  fourth inningdirect rendering. The  little boy’s ‘Sorry, I can’t. ’ is  a  reversal,  the last  one  is  a  hilarious  mutations. Cultural context  is an abstract,  general concept, an abstraction  form  in people’s everyday  social life. Because  discourse  is a communicative form,  while the  communication  is  carried out  in  certain situations, therefore, discourse analysis  must consider  its contents, participants in  communicative activities,  speech,  media  and other factors. In addition,  there is also a  certain  discourse  of environmental  factors, such as context, Marlinowski called it ‘Situational context’. Halliday thinks, from the  language  point of view  the use of  situational context  the most important three factors are:  language field,  the tone  and manner. Language field  is  corrected  in the event of  things;  tone  is  who is  communicative, their basic  conditions, characteristics, status  roles,  role relationships  between participants;  manner  refers to the language  in  the role of  communication, including communication  channels and modified way. From the above  humorous  point of view,  the language field  is  the scene ask questions in class;  communication of both  the teachers  and students; both  in communication  is the  unequal  status of  the teacher  is  the speaker, students aresubject to  speaker. Students  response should be to  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœsupport’ or  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœfight against’. The  confrontation  is  the beginning of  reversal,  which produce  humor. Communicative  role of the conversion  from the  point of view, discourse  is the speaker  and  the recipient  as a  center of  rotation. 3. Cross-cultural  comparison  of  Chinese and foreign  humor 3. 1 Themes Humor  is mankinds  an aesthetic  pursuit,  is  a reflection of  real life, first in  its  themes and  content  reflect  the unique  customs  of the  ethnic,  social and cultural. By traditional  Chinese  Confucianism  deeply rooted  that people  talk about sex  pale, therefore,  traditional Eastern humor neutral topic is taboo. The  humor  in  the West accounted for  a large proportion  of these  topics. 3. 2 Social functions Classified  according to their  social function  of humor as: negative humor(Deny  the shortcomings  of  life  and  negative  phenomena), positive humor(Affirm the  advantages  in life  and positive  phenomenon)  and pure humor(Does not  contain  affirm  and  negative,  just  full of  fun  to everyday phenomena  of  reflection). Europe and the United  States  purely  for entertainment  humor  in  a significant proportion of  the pure  humor,  this is  the time when  humor  from  the bud  will form  adistinctive  feature. The Chinese  sense of humor  seems to  bear  a heavier  historical mission – skewer the current ills. Throughout  hundreds of popular since the traditional dialogue  segment,  the vast majority of  satire  piece. 3. 3 Performance practices National characteristics  of humor  in  artistic  expression  on the  subject matter as  far as  clarity. It  is often  rooted in  long-standing  cultural traditions of a nation  and psychological quality,  the performance  is very subtle, delicate. China  has always been  deliberately seeking  humor  in the end,  the  taste  of the progressive  layers. Most indicative of  the Chinese  culture  of  humor  in the form  of humor  than the  comic. Crosstalk  of the  four  aspects of  the structure  corresponding to  the  four parts  of humor. Comic  from start to finish  with multiple  suspenses,  so that  the audience  is always  with interest, from the  tension  eased  to meet  expectations, and then  across  to the new expectations and new  meet. The  European and American  humor  often only one  piece  of suspense, comedy  to be more  suspense,  but because of  the integrity of  comedy,  the plot  of  coherence nd requirements, restrictions on  the use of  a lot of suspense. Crosstalk  is not,  although it  has some  plot lines, but not sticking to  the plot  needs the opportunity to  abandon the use of  suspense. On the contrary,  sometimes  to  the medium of  suspense, clever plot jumps from one to another with no ass ociated plot. 3. 4 Seize of subtle Subtle  sense of humor  is the  worlds nations   common feature. Each nations sense of humor  by  their historical  and cultural  tradition,  in the long-term artistic practice  in the  form  of  subtle style, extent  and methods vary. From the  perspective  of contemporary  humor  writing, in the  subtle  nature of  the pursuit, China  and Western countries  along two  different directions. Overall,  the humor  works of  Western-oriented  and  strive to concise of implicit, philosophy  combine  to make  more  room for  humor  after taste. The Chinese contemporary  humor,  its ability to  master the  subtle  and bright scales. 4. Summary Western countries,  Chinas  humor and  humor  in their  culture,  nurtured by  the soil  to form  a  different style. Through this  cross-cultural comparison, our  team  has  a better understanding of  world culture,  to accelerate  the pace of  China into the  world.

Should obese people pay more for medical treatment

Should obese people pay more for medical treatment Obesity is an incredibly expensive disease, both for the patients and the hospitals. Aside from being a disease which is associated with many further complications and problems, which themselves lead to an increased cost, this disease also requires costly medication and specialised equipment for diagnosis and treatment. This results in a condition which has proven extremely costly to nearly all parties involved. It has been reported that  £47 million was spent purely on anti-obesity drugs in the fiscal year of 06 to 07.1 This figure, coupled with the fact that the prevalence of adult obesity in the U.K. is above 20 per cent and set to rise10, signifies the incredible cost associated with this disease and, in turn, highlights the growing problem of obesity on a social and economic scale. Its a problem that cant be ignored, and throughout the course of this paper I will attempt to weigh and evaluate both sides of the argument; Should obese people pay more for medical treatment?, in o rder to find a resolution. First, before jumping in to the crux of the question, it is imperative to establish the importance of the NHS as well as its core principles, in order to allow a fully in-depth analysis of the question at hand. The NHS, which is the primary healthcare provider in Great Britain, was set up in 1948 with one of its key principles being; the health service will be available to all and financed entirely from taxation, which means that people pay into it according to their means.2 It is important to stress the word all in the sentence. This word refers to the nation as a whole, regardless of their medical condition. The importance of the NHS clearly cant be stated enough, a nationwide health service which aims to treat all without directly taking money from the patients, is vital to maintaining the infrastructure of the country. It would seem then that the very nature of this question would oppose the core principles established in the set-up of the NHS, however in the recent light of the current economic situation and even proposed budget cuts3, the question raised could one day become a reality. It is important to first define and explain obesity ahead of tackling the ethical dilemma which is the title of this paper. One definition would simply be too much body fat on an individual, while this is somewhat accurate, it is also incredibly basic and not at all scientific. The BMI (body mass index) measurement is one of the most straightforward and useful techniques to establish the condition of obesity. The BMI is calculated by correlating a relationship between the height and weight of an individual, it is used by many organisations around the world such as WHO and NHS. The formula for calculating the BMI is: The results gained from the BMI can be classified in table 1 in order to specify the particular weight class of an individual. Classification BMI (kg/m2) Principal cut-off points Additional cut-off points Underweight Severe thinness Moderate thinness 16.00 16.99 16.00 16.99 Mild thinness 17.00 18.49 17.00 18.49 Normal range 18.50 24.99 18.50 22.99 23.00 24.99 Overweight à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥25.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥25.00 Pre-obese 25.00 29.99 25.00 27.49 27.50 29.99 Obese à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥30.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥30.00 Obese class I 30.00 34.99 30.00 32.49 32.50 34.99 Obese class II 35.00 39.99 35.00 37.49 37.50 39.99 Obese class III à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥40.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥40.00 Table 1. adapted from WHO While the use of the body mass index to calculate a persons weight class is used worldwide it has a fair number of shortcomings and flaws. For instance, this table of classification for BMI is not gender specific, so it is applied the same for both males and females equally, as well as this, it also doesnt account for weight distribution in individuals nor is it possible to consider bone or muscle mass, both of which are heavier than fat. These problems will hold more significance later in this essay while discussing how obesity should be defined. Obesity is caused by a variety of different factors. These include genetic susceptibility, socio-environmental factors, malfunctioning appetite regulation or may also be a cause of other diseases, such as Cushings syndrome.7 While it was previously thought that obesity was caused by a lack of willpower or a lifestyle choice, more recent studies have discovered that obesity is a chronic disease, involving a number of different biochemical and metabolic processes compared to individuals who arent obese.8 As stated previously, obesity is linked to many more serious health conditions and illnesses. Examples of these include diabetes mellitus, increased cholesterol, coronary heart disease and hypertension amongst many others.7 It is important to discuss the seriousness of these resulting conditions in order to fully comprehend the fatality of obesity. Diabetes mellitus (otherwise known as type II diabetes) is a serious condition which occurs when the body either does not produce enough insulin or the cells do not properly react to the insulin produced. This condition is said to affect approximately 2 million people across England and Wales, supposedly with a further 750, 000 unaware that they have this condition.4 Type II diabetes can also lead to kidney disease, nerve damage or even strokes. Coronary heart disease is another serious condition which can be caused because of obesity, which affects almost 300, 000 people a year in the U.K.11 There are multiple actions that can be taken in an attempt to treat or cure obesity. These include dietary therapy in order to regulate the number of calories taken in by an individual, and to maintain that over a long-term period. Other methods which may be used in conjunction with this may be increased exercise, to burn off calories, weight loss surgery, such as gastric band surgery or possibly drug therapy, which is often used as a last resort. It should be noted that not one of these methods are able to fully treat obesity alone, instead they must be used in unison depending on the severity of the disease and also the individuals diagnosed with them. It apparent that obesity is an incredibly complicated disease in terms of the causes, secondary factors and treatments, all of which contribute towards a confusion regarding the nature of obesity in the minds of the public as well as upping the cost due its many treatment techniques, none of which can be considered 100 per cent effective. This encompasses all of the aspects of the disease, which is often described as an epidemic, as its a growing concern, and the economic burden attached is sure to evoke strong opinions regarding the question of this paper. Now that the importance of the health care system has been established and the medical significance of obesity has been recognised, the essay question itself can be discussed. The initial views on this topic are polarising, with some instantly believing that the obese should pay more for the disease that theyve inflicted upon themselves, believing that it is unfair that the rest of the nation should pay the cost. Others believe that they shouldnt pay the financial cost, stating that the NHS was set up to help all, despite whether or not their condition is self caused. The argument can even be pushed further, extrapolating that smokers, drinkers and even athletes would also have to pay for the medical costs for their diseases or injuries, because, by that same logic, these conditions are also self inflicted. Although there are certainly some truths to be had in these two contrasting opinions, the two sides of the argument will be investigated and examined on the grounds of ethicality, societal and fairness in an attempt to bring about some form of a resolve on this controversial topic. One of the primary factors for the argument for obese people having to finance the treatment of their medical condition is that the disease they are burdened with is self inflicted, which is to say that they literally brought it on themselves, so should therefore have to deal with the consequences. While there is some validity in this argument, it isnt quite as black and white as it may initially sound, with many further complexities set to arise. Those that oppose this argument, are likely to call discrimination, as this ideology that separates a certain type of people from the rest and forces them pay more, which is highly unjust. Also, by this same reasoning, and in the issue of fairness, other patients with self inflicted disease should also have to pay more for conditions and illnesses which they have brought upon themselves. Such conditions would include lung cancer for smokers, liver disease for those who drink as well as injuries to sports players and athletes, as these are a ll, to some degree, self inflicted. A counter point to this counter point would be that smokers and drinkers already pay more through an increased tax for the drugs (i.e. cigarettes and alcohol) which lead to the individual diseases, so an alternative, or possibly in addition, to forcing obesity patients to have to pay for medical treatments would be to raise the tax on foods with an increased calorie count. This may also be used to deter away from choosing these unhealthy foods as well as generate income from those who cost the NHS so much money in its treatment for obesity. However, this would result that members in the public that fall in to the normal weight range would also have to pay the increased tax for these same foods, if they choose to occasionally indulge. This, at first glance, seems like a fair compromise, as smokers who dont cost the NHS with treatment for smoking related disease still have to pay the tax on cigarettes, however, the idea comes full circle that people who arent obese are still having to pay lifestyles of the obese, indirect as it may be, which is one of the main points evoking the question at hand. There is evidence to suggest that those who are obese are also more likely to be in lower paid jobs, and as such, have less expendable income. This may be because those with lower income are more likely to live in poorer areas and where healthier, more nutritious foods arent as readily available or outside of their budget. This may also be due to a discrimination present against people who are obese and overweight. Employers may be more likely to hire those who arent overweight as they see their ability to resist overeating or staying in shape as a good quality in what Acs, Lyles and Stanton (2007) describe as a willingness to delay gratification. Whatever the reason may be for the correlation between being overweight and having lower income, the fact remains that the lack of capital possessed by the obese population would prove to be incredibly troublesome if obese people were to finance their medical treatment in this manner. The case for increasing the tax of unhealthy foods may b e less applicable as it may push both healthy foods and unhealthy foods out of reach for poorer and obese population financially. To overcome this, healthier foods have to be made cheaper and more widespread, which may again be difficult given the nature to produce healthier and organic foods are likely to cost more. Even so, it would seem any loss made would surely help the NHS spend less on obesity, which, in the 2007, was estimated at  £4.2 billion.6 The basis for this particular argument is on essentially boils down to the thought that obese people are obese solely because of their own doings, which many people believe to be an accurate portrayal of reality. However, this statement by no means holds true to the complete population of obese people. There is a genetic link associated with obesity, with the inheritable risk of obesity thought to be approximately 30%.7 Many genes have been found that code for weight control hormones, and a defect in these genes may be passed on the offspring, thereby increasing the chance of obesity in that child.5 This would bring about many more questions and dilemmas concerning the topic at hand. For instance, what if the cause for obesity was mainly genetic as opposed to being environmental? Should the patient still pay more even though, by definition, this type of obesity isnt necessarily self-inflicted? Some may answer this question by stating that those with genetic factors shouldnt pay, howe ver, what if both social and biological factors play an equal role in the cause of an individuals obesity? Or, further expanding on the idea that those found to have the genetic link shouldnt pay, how would the obesity genes be examined in the patient? Genetic testing may be carried out, but performing these tests on the entire to obese population in order to determine who should pay these costs would itself be costly, therefore being counter-productive where one of the primary aims of the question raised is to cut back on money being spent. There are also further complications regarding this wide held belief that obesity is self-inflicted. Are cases where individuals are driven to high calorie, comfort foods because of bullying or depression, be considered self-inflicted? Also, who should pay the cost for cases of childhood obesity? While some may point the fingers at the parents, one would have to ask if that is at all fair. For instance, parents arent sentenced for the crimes that their children commit. Evidence exists which associates an addiction to eating (as well as other addictions) with mental illnesses.9 Should these cases also have to pay for medical treatment themselves? By this same merit should schizophrenics and patients with other mental conditions have to finance their treatment? There are a host of other problems and issues which are presented if this question is to be seriously considered. The question of affordability and practicality surely arises when applying the theoretical question to a real-world scenario. If obese patients were to pay directly for their medication, surgery or weight-loss programs then how much should be charged? It would surely have to be a fairly significant amount as the cost of obesity itself is already at an extremely costly figure.6 Having to pay for medical treatment may create a divide between patients who can and cant afford the costs, possibly adding another level of discrimination. And what if patients are unable to meet the expense of these bills? Should they be denied treatment? Anything beyond entertaining this idea would bring about huge moral dilemmas, as the hospitals would essentially be playing God, deciding who lives and dies, based purely on their financial background. Also, the practicality of such a situation is likely to bring up further complications, with one question being; how should it be charged? The NHS wasnt set up to accept payments in this particular manner, so how could this be accomplished? Would the patients need to pay before their medication or surgery? If so, and the patient does not pay, it will again bring up the concept of denying treatment to patients. There is also the possibility that patients would pay post-surgery. But if they refuse to pay or cant afford it, then some form of policing body would need to be enforced to ensure these payments are made. While this will cost more money, again a problem given the nature of the question is to decrease the money spent, it also sends out an image of the NHS reminiscent of some sort of mobster loan shark. Another issue when considering this subject is the concept of defining obesity. Earlier I have stated the use of the BMI system to define obesity the world over, as well as outlining its fundamental flaws. A concern with defining obesity with the use of the BMI scale is that the differences between being classified as overweight or obese may literally be a few inches in height or a few kilograms in weight. This may very well create scenarios where a person may be a few inches shorter than another who is the same weight having to pay more for treatment. This could possibly be countered by measuring obesity by more methods than simply BMI alone, which is currently in place to diagnose obesity by the NHS. Other methodologies may also have to be in place in order to diagnose or differentiate between different classes of obesity. These could possibly include calculating the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), Waist circumference (WCR) and Skinfold thickness.7 together these allows for a more accura te representation of a patients physical status, allowing to charge for medical treatment accordingly, if that path were to be taken. It is clear that any attempt to find a solution to this question brings up series of arguments and counter points which negate and nullify each other, and instead of establishing a concrete plan of action, it would seem that the wisest and safest bet would be to sit on the fence. My personal opinion on the matter would be to increase the tax of unhealthy foods and make healthier foods readily available and at an affordable price as well as pushing for a more active lifestyle, something akin to the change4life scheme recently set up by the government. Though this isnt without flaws, it certainly seems to reach a form of middle ground in term of ethics and equality. One of the main aims of the NHS was to treat all patients who pay tax, so forcing a section of people to pay more, regardless of whether or not the condition is self inflicted, opposes its key ideologies as well as being highly discriminatory. My proposed plan of action is certainly more subdued and the benefits of which wo uld only be realised after a longer period of time, however, it strikes a fair balance between staying true to the NHS philosophy, equality for all an attempt to treat obesity and healthy lifestyle. The report should be similar in overall style to the topic discussed in Nelsons Issue II (Human Organ Transplantation) above. Another example for style could be a Scientific American article (e.g. How breast milk protects newborn (December, 1995) by J. Newman, pp58-61). The essay should cover the basic science, including recent developments and ongoing research, but should focus on examination of the ethical, social and legal issues related to the topic. 1.More than a million anti-obesity prescriptions were issued in England in the last financial year at a cost of  £47million. It means about 88,000 people could be on a course of treatment. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23406735-pills-not-the-answer-to-obesity-says-top-doctor.do 2. http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/nhshistory/Pages/NHShistory1948.aspx 3. http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/nhshistory/Pages/NHShistory1948.aspx http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8012588.stm 4. http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diabetes-type2/Pages/Introduction.aspx 5. Bouchard 1994 6. http://www.healthcarerepublic.com/news/934442/Cost-obesity-NHS-England-rise-62-billion/ Acs  : 9781845425005 , obesity, business and public policy. 7. Tomlinson 8. brock 9. truth mental illness: 9780757301070 10. http://www.who.int/infobase/report.aspx?rid=118iso=GBRDef_Code=cd.0701Survey_Year_End=2005genGraphButton=Generate+Graph 11. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx?url=Pages/What-is-it.aspx red: expand blue: unsure